El Libro de Mormón/Animales

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Criticism

Critics claim that the Book of Mormon mentions animals which do not belong in a pre-Columbian New World. They cite this as evidence for Joseph Smith 'slipping up,' and revealing his forgery. Often attacked examples include:

  • the ass (donkey)
  • bees
  • the cow
  • the elephant
  • the horse
  • silkworms
  • swine (pigs)

Some sport is also had at the expense of two unknown animals, which are given untranslated names:

  • cureloms
  • cumoms

Source(s) of the Criticism

  • John Hyde, Jun., Mormonism: It’s Leaders and Designs (New York: W.P. Fetridge and Co.), 1857.
  • Thomas D.S. Key, Sc.D., Ed.D. (Biology), Th.D., “A Biologist Examines the Book of Mormon” Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation, XXX–VIII, 2, (June 1985).
  • Floyd C. McElveen, The Mormon Illusion (Ventura: Reagal Books, 1977).

Response

In the first place, one should not reject the possibility of "loan-shifting," in which a name for a familiar species is applied for a new species. This is a well-known phenomenon — for example, Amerindians called European horses 'deer' when they first encountered them. The classic example is, of course, the hippopotamus, which name the Greeks gave to an animal they called a "river (potamus) horse (hippo)." Critics who scoff should ask themselves how anyone could mistake a hippopotamus for a horse — the answer, of course, is that the Greeks knew perfectly well that the hippo was not a true horse, but the name stuck.

In addition to these considerations, some of the 'ludicrous' species may not be as strange as the critics pretend.

Ass (Donkey)

The only clue to the role of the "ass" in Nephite society comes from Mosiah 12:5 and Mosiah 21:3, in which those in bondage bear burdens like "a dumb ass."

Other mentions occur in 1 Nephi 18:19 and Mosiah 5:14, while Mosiah 13:24 is a quotation of the Ten Commandments.

"Ass" has been suggested as a loanshift for the tapir, which many have described in decidedly horse-like terms.[1][2]

In addition, some modern tapir enthusaists indicate that tapirs are likely unsuitable for raising in herds (not being herd animals, they tend to fight), but [P]eople in the tapirs' native countries will keep individuals to fatten them up for food, though...some are pretty tame and others can be extremely dangerous...They're big, heavy and strong, have powerful jaws and teeth, and they can move very fast."[3]

A modern government report indicates that

The tapir is docile toward man and hence management of the animal is relatively easy. An indigenous person describes the tapir as follows: "The animal is very sociable. Taken as a pup, one can easily tame it; it knows how to behave near the house; it goes to eat in the mountain and then returns to sleep near the house."[4]

It would seem that at least a limited role for the tapir is not out of the question, either as a food source (Tapirs make up between 7-10% of the diet in rural Amazonia)[5] or as a potential beast of burden on a small scale (given their strength). Charles Darwin even noted that tapirs were kept tame in the Americas, though they did not tend to breed in captivity.[6]This fact might explain the relatively infrequent mention of these animals in the Book of Mormon.

Bees

Among the supposed Book of Mormon anachronisms is the mention of “bees” (Ether 2:3)...It should be noted firstly that the Book of Mormons use of the term "bees" occurs in an Old World (Jaredite) setting, it is never used in connection with the New World, therefore the argument could simply end here. Did the Jaredites bring bees to the New World? We may never know. Some studies suggest, however, that bees were known in the ancient New World. Bruce Warren, for instance notes that there “are many references in the Maya region to honey bees in ancient times, and these references occur in ritual contexts, i.e., are of native or pre-Spanish origin." Other New World scholars have observed that “not only was the domesticated bee in ancient America but that there were gods of bees and beekeepers . . . Honey was considered a real treat for the Indians. Equally important was black wax taken from the hives which was often traded for other commodities."[7]

Further information on New World bees in a domestic context can be found in F. Padilla, F. Puerta, J. M. Flores and M. Bustos, "Bees, Apiculture and the New World," in Archivos de zootécnica, 41/154 (1992-extra): 563–567. PDF link

Cow

The term “cattle” is used three times in the Book of Mormon (Ether 9:17-19; Enos 1:21; 3 Nephi 3:22), while the term “cow” is used twice (Ether 9:18; 1 Nephi 18:25). The Jaredite record is unclear as to whether “cattle” and “cows” are the same, or if “cows” are a subcategory of “cattle"...
As with many other animals in the Book of Mormon, it is likely that these Book of Mormon terms are the product of reassigning familiar labels to unfamiliar items...The Miami Indians, for example, were unfamiliar with the buffalo and simply called them “wild cows.” Likewise the “explorer DeSoto called the buffalo simply vaca, cow. The Delaware Indians named the cow after the deer, and the Miami tribe labeled sheep, when they first saw them, ‘looks-like-a-cow’” [8][9]

Elephant

The only place that elephants are mentioned in the Book of Mormon is in Ether 9:19 in approximately 2500 B.C. Thus any elephants existing upon the American continents need not have survived past about 2400 B.C...Besides the traditions, five elephant effigies have been found in ancient Mexico. Dr. Verrill, a well-known (non-Mormon) archaeologist describes one of these figures as “‘so strikingly and obviously elephantine that it cannot be explained away by any of the ordinary theories of being a conventionalized or exaggerated tapir, ant-eater or macaw. Not only does this figure show a trunk, but in addition it has the big leaf-like ears and the forward-bending knees peculiar to the elephants. Moreover, it shows a load or burden strapped upon its back. It is inconceivable that any man could have imagined a creature with the flapping ears and peculiar hind knees of an elephant, or that any human being could have conventionalized a tapir to this extent’”...
The oral traditions, written records, and artwork depicting elephants lends strong support for the claim that the elephant existed in ancient America. Even more substantial support-- actual remains-- have also been discovered. Today all scholars agree that mastodons and mammoths (which are unquestionably elephants to zoologists) once lived in the Americas. The dispute today is how late they lived. According to the Book of Mormon they need not have lived later than 2400 B.C. Within recent years archaeological evidence has demonstrated that the elephant could very well have survived to such a late date. Butchered mastodon bones were recently discovered at one archaeological site which dates to shortly after the time of Christ. Another site, dating to approximately 100 B.C. has yielded the remains of a mammoth, a mastodon, as well as a horse.[10]
Some scholars have suggested that the elephant (mammoth or mastodon) lived later than hitherto believed. Ludwell Johnson, in an article entitled “Men and Elephants in America” published in Scientific Monthly, wrote that “Discoveries of associations of human and proboscidean remains [Elephantine mammals, including, elephants, mammoths, and mastodons] are by no means uncommon. As of 1950, MacCowan listed no less than twenty-seven” including, as noted by Hugo Gross, a “partly burned mastodon skeleton and numerous potsherds at Alangasi, Ecuador...There can no longer be any doubt that man and elephant coexisted in America.... Probably it is safe to say that American Proboscidea have been extinct for a minimum of 3000 years."
If the elephants had died off at least 3000 years ago, they would still have been well within range of the Jaredite era. And as noted above, some evidence indicates that the elephant may have survived in limited numbers for centuries later.[11]

In short, the elephant presents no problem for the Book of Mormon.

Horse

As mentioned, one should not reject the possibility of "loan-shifting," — candidate species for "horse" under this interpretation include the tapir or deer.[12]

However, the case against pre-Columbian horses may not be as 'iron-clad' as the critics assume:

Excavations at the site of Mayapan, which dates to a few centuries before the Spaniards arrived, yielded horse bones in four spots. (Two of the lots were from the surface, however, and might represent Spanish horses.) From another site, the Cenote (water hole) Ch'en Mul, came other traces, this time from a firm archaeological context. In the bottom stratum in a sequence of levels of unconsolidated earth almost two meters in thickness, two horse teeth were found. They were partially mineralized, indicating that they were definitely ancient and could not have come from any Spanish animal. The interesting thing is that Maya pottery was also found in the stratified soil where the teeth were located.[13]

Some have argued that horse remains ought to be better attested, if they did play a role in Nephite society. However, it should be remembered that horses do not play a major role in the Book of Mormon. They are mentioned in the following contexts:

Quotations from Old World scriptures

  • 2 Nephi 12:7 - citation from Isaiah
  • 2 Nephi 15:28 - citation from Isaiah

Apocalyptic teachings in Old World style

  • 3 Nephi 21:14 - Jesus speaks of "horses and chariots" in a symbolic and apocalyptic address

Horses in the New World

  • 1 Nephi 18:25: we did find upon the land of promise, as we journeyed in the wilderness,...the horse...
  • Ether 9:19 - Jaredites had "horses"

Used in conjunction with chariots

  • Alma 18:9 - Ammon feeds the Lamanite king's horses, which are associated with his "chariots."
  • Alma 20:6 - Lamanite king uses horses and chariot for visit to neighboring kingdom
  • 3 Nephi 3:22 - Nephites "had taken their horses, and their chariots" to a central fortified area for protection against robbers

(It should be noted that we are not told if these chariots served a purpose in riding, or if they were for transport of goods, or if they had a ceremonial function. One assumes some sort of practicality, since they brought chariots to the siege in 3 Nephi.)

Role in animal husbandry

  • Enos 1:21 - the people of Nephi did...raise...flocks of herds, and flocks of all manner of cattle of every kind, and goats, and wild goats, and also many horses.
  • 3 Nephi 4:4 - During the robbers' seige, the Nephites "reserved for themselves provisions, and horses and cattle, and flocks of every kind, that they might subsist for the space of seven years"
  • 3 Nephi 6:1 - After the seige, Nephites each take their possessions home, including "horses and cattle"

It is interesting that the horses are often grouped with cattle, and seem to have played a role in the diet (though this may have been under the exigencies of the siege of 3 Nephi.)

Conspicuously absent is any role of the horse in the many journeys recorded in the Book of Mormon. Nor do horses or chariots play any role in the many Nephite wars; this is in stark contrast to the Biblical account, in which the chariots of Egypt, Babylon, and the Philistines are feared super-weapons upon the plains of Israel.

Nor do we see a role for the horse in gallant cavalry charges that were the romantic warrior ideal in Joseph Smith's day. Nor is there any sign of the rapid war of manoeuver and skirmish favored by the cavalry of the western nations. These are not the horses of the nineteenth century's practical realities or fanciful dreams.

There are societies in which the horse was vital, such as among the Hun warriors of Asia and Eastern Europe, for whom horses were a sign of wealth and status, and for whom they were essential for food, clothing, and war. Yet, there is no known horse bone from this period in the archaeologic record.[14]

If the hundreds of thousands of horses owned by the Huns left little or no trace, it may not be surprising that little has been found in the Americas, given that the Book of Mormon's role for horses is minimal. Ironically, there is more evidence of horses among the Mesoamericans than among the Huns!

Besides, "everyone knows" there were no horses in the Americas before Columbus. Joseph Smith would have understood this common belief. If he was trying to perpetuate a fraud, why include an element that nearly everyone would have heard about, especially when it plays such a small role in the book?

Silkworms

See silk

Swine

“Swine” are mentioned twice in the Book of Mormon; once in 3 Nephi 14:6, where the Lord uses the term figuartively, and once in Ether 9:18 where swine are described as an animal useful for food. Some critics have ridiculed the Book of Mormon’s suggestion that swine would be used for food (due to dietary constraints of the Mosiac law), but it should be noted that history contained in Ether took place prior to the Law of Moses. Other critics have claimed that swine were unknown in the ancient New World...The early Americans did, however, have a native pig. The Aztecs called it pisote, “which means basically glutton” and was often applied to the peccary or wild pig. “In regard to the peccary,” notes Sorenson, “the Nahuatl terms quauhcoyametl and quahpizotl were developed after the conquest to distinguish the native species from the introduced Castilian pig....”[Sorenson, An Ancient American Setting, 290.][15]

Cureloms and Cumoms

These names are untranslated Jaredite terms. A variety of potential animals have been suggested, such as llamas, alpacas, mastodons, or other Pleistocene mammals.[16]

Without more information, one cannot count this as a strike against the Book of Mormon. Interestingly, were he fabricating the Book of Mormon, this was an opportunity for Joseph Smith to let his imagination run wild, and yet no descriptions of these strange beasts (which he goes to the trouble to name, in the forgery model of Book of Mormon production) are provided.

Conclusion

We can draw the following tentative conclusions:

  • Ass - the horse-like tapir is a possibility
  • Bees - not required in the Americas by the text, but pre-Columbian examples also exist
  • Cow - bovine species (e.g. buffalo) were present in the Americas
  • Elephant - only necessary in the Jaredite era, there is both traditional, inscriptional, and biologic remains as evidence for the Book of Mormon's claims
  • Horse - there is some evidence, not yet deemed definitive, which suggests that the true horse may have been known in at least some parts of Mesoamerica in pre-Columbian times before Christ. There is also ample precedent for naming different animals with common names, and there are other New World candidates, such as deer and tapirs.
  • Silkworms - present in the New World with other options also available for silk cloth; see silk
  • Swine - native swine species existed, though only Jaredite use is noted (unsurprisingly, since Nephites were under the law of Moses).

Endnotes

  1. [back]  "Horses in the Book of Mormon" (Provo: Utah, FARMS, 2000). off-site (Inglés)
  2. [back]  See, for example, the Encyclopedia Brittanica, 1911 edition for horse).
  3. [back]  Sheryl Todd, "The Tapir Gallery, the Tapir Preservation Fund," Tapir Gallery archive (7 May 1997, 14:03:06 -6h00), (last accessed 22 October 2005) off-site (Inglés)
  4. [back]  Joseph Henry Vogel, "White paper: The Successful Use of Economic Instruments to Foster Sustainable Use of Biodiversity: Six Case Studies from Latin America and the Caribbean," Biopolicy Journal, Vol. 2, Paper 5 (PY97005), 1997. off-site (Inglés)
  5. [back]  OAS.org off-site (Inglés) (last accessed 22 October 2005).
  6. [back]  Charles Darwin, The Variation of Plants and Animals Under Domestication, Vol. 2, (1868), 86. off-site (Inglés)
  7. [back]  Mike Ash, mormonfortress.com off-site (Inglés)
  8. [back] John L. Sorenson, An Ancient American Setting for the Book of Mormon (Salt Lake City, Utah : Deseret Book Co. ; Provo, Utah : Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 1996 [1985]), 294. ISBN 1573451576.
  9. [back]  Mike Ash, mormonfortress.com off-site (Inglés)
  10. [back] John L. Sorenson, An Ancient American Setting for the Book of Mormon (Salt Lake City, Utah : Deseret Book Co. ; Provo, Utah : Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 1996 [1985]),297–298. ISBN 1573451576.
  11. [back] Mike Ash, mormonfortress.com off-site (Inglés)
  12. [back]  "Horses in the Book of Mormon" (Provo: Utah, FARMS, 2000). off-site (Inglés)
  13. [back]  Anonymous, "Out of the Dust: Were Ancient Americans Familiar with Real Horses?," Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 10/1 (2001): N/A–N/A. off-site (Inglés) wiki
  14. [back]  S. Bokonyi, History of Domestic Mammals in Central and Eastern Europe (Budapest: Akademiai Kiado, 1974), 267.
  15. [back] Mike Ash, mormonfortress.com * off-site (Inglés)
  16. [back]  For a discussion, see John L. Sorenson, An Ancient American Setting for the Book of Mormon (Salt Lake City, Utah : Deseret Book Co. ; Provo, Utah : Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 1996 [1985]), 298. ISBN 1573451576.

Further reading

FAIR wiki articles

Libro de Mormón "Anacronismos"

FAIR web site

  • FAIR Topical Guide: Animals in Book of Mormon FAIR link

External links

  • FARMS: animals and plants research off-site (Inglés)
  • FARMS: horses in the Book of Mormon [off-site (Inglés)
  • Mike Ash, "Bees," mormonfortress.com (accessed 23 Oct 2005). off-site (Inglés)
  • Mike Ash, "Cattle," mormonfortress.com (accessed 23 Oct 2005). off-site (Inglés)
  • Mike Ash, "Swine," mormonfortress.com (accessed 23 Oct 2005). off-site (Inglés)
  • Mike Ash, "Elephants," mormonfortress.com (accessed 23 Oct 2005). off-site (Inglés)
  • Plantilla:JBMS-2-1-11
  • Kirk P. Rodgers (editor), "Chapter 6-Wildlife," in Minimum Conflict: Guidelines for Planning the Use of American Humid Tropic Environments, Department of Regional Development, Organization of American States, (Washington, D.C.:1987), (last accessed 23 October 2005) off-site (Inglés)
  • John L. Sorenson, "Viva Zapato! Hurray for the Shoe! (Review of "Does the Shoe Fit? A Critique of the Limited Tehuantepec Geography" by Deanne G. Matheny," FARMS Review of Books 6/1 (1994): 297–361. off-site (Inglés)

Printed material

  • John L. Sorenson, An Ancient American Setting for the Book of Mormon (Salt Lake City, Utah : Deseret Book Co. ; Provo, Utah : Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 1996 [1985]),288–299. ISBN 1573451576.
  • John L. Sorenson, "Animals in the Book of Mormon: An Annotated Bibliography" (Provo, Utah: FARMS, 1992).
  • John L. Sorenson, "Once More: The Horse," in John W. Welch, Reexploring the Book of Mormon (Salt Lake City, Utah : Deseret Book Co. ; Provo, Utah : Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 1992), 98–100. ISBN 0875796001.[17]
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