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| − | {{Articles FAIR copyright}} {{Articles Header 1}} {{Articles Header 2}} {{Articles Header 3}} {{Articles Header 4}} {{Articles Header 5}} {{Articles Header 6}} {{Articles Header 7}} {{Articles Header 8}} {{Articles Header 9}} {{Articles Header 10}} | + | {{Main Page}} |
| − | {{Resource Title|Warfare in the Book of Mormon}} | + | {{Navigation:Book of Mormon}} |
| − | {{summary}}
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| − | == ==
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| − | {{Topics label}}
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| | <onlyinclude> | | <onlyinclude> |
| − | {{SummaryHeader | + | {{H2 |
| − | |link=Book of Mormon/Warfare | + | |L=Warfare in the Book of Mormon |
| − | |subject=Warfare in the Book of Mormon | + | |H=Warfare in the Book of Mormon |
| − | |summary= | + | |S= |
| | + | |L1=Warfare in the Book of Mormon: Defense |
| | + | |L2=Warfare in the Book of Mormon: Oaths taken by warriors |
| | + | |L3=Warfare in the Book of Mormon: Seasonality of Warfare |
| | + | |L4=Warfare in the Book of Mormon: Tactics |
| | + | |L5=Warfare in the Book of Mormon: Secret combinations |
| | + | |L6=Warfare in the Book of Mormon: Weapons |
| | }} | | }} |
| − | {{SummaryItem
| + | </onlyinclude> |
| − | |link=Book of Mormon/Warfare/Armor
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| − | |subject=Armor
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| − | |summary=
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| − | }}
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| − | {{SummaryItem
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| − | |link=Book of Mormon/Warfare/Fortifications
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| − | |subject=Fortifications
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| − | |summary=
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| − | }}
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| − | {{SummaryItem
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| − | |link=Book of Mormon/Warfare/Ritual warfare
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| − | |subject=Ritual warfare
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| − | |summary=
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| − | }}
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| − | {{:Question: Are the fortifications described in the Book of Mormon consistent with those built in ancient Mesoamerica?}}
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| − | ==Ritual warfare==
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| − | ===Apostate cities===
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| − | {{MaxwellInstituteBar
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| − | |link=http://publications.maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/fullscreen/?pub=1108&index=5
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| − | |title=The Destruction of Ammonihah and the Law of Apostate Cities
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| − | |author=John W. Welch
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| − | |publication=Reexploring the Book of Mormon
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| − | |date=1992
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| − | |summary=While Alma clearly lacked both the desire and the power to have the city of Ammonihah destroyed by a Nephite military force, and certainly no legal decree was ever issued calling for the extermination of the city, Alma carefully recorded and documented the fact that the inhabitants of Ammonihah had satisfied every element of the crime of being an apostate city. When the justice of God destroyed that city, Alma effectively showed in the record that this fate befell them in accordance with divine law.
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| − | {{MaxwellInstituteBar
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| − | |link=http://publications.maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/fullscreen/?pub=1108&index=5
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| − | |title=Law and War in the Book of Mormon
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| − | |author=John W. Welch
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| − | |publication=Warfare in the Book of Mormon
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| − | |date=1990
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| − | |summary=At first, law and war appear to be opposites. Especially in the modern experience, wars are thought to be basically extralegal. They break out when law and order break down; rules and conventions can become next to meaningless in the heat and rage of war. On closer examination, however, even war cannot be conducted successfully in a total state of anarchy or chaos. To a greater or lesser extent, all civilizations accept and employ certain laws, rules, customs, rituals, and conventional practices in times of war. In ancient Israel and in the Book of Mormon, this was certainly also the case.
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| − | }}
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| − | ===Oaths taken by warriors===
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| − | | |
| − | {{MaxwellInstituteBar
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| − | |link=http://publications.maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/fullscreen/?pub=1108&index=4
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| − | |title=An Oath of Allegiance in the Book of Mormon
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| − | |author=Terrence L. Szink
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| − | |publication=Warfare in the Book of Mormon
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| − | |date=1990
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| − | |summary=An important element in any military endeavor is the loyalty of the soldiers. Obviously, even the most brilliant military tactics will fail if the troops are unfaithful in fulfilling their duty. Often, to instill this loyalty, an oath of allegiance is administered to recruits. The well-known titleof-liberty episode in Alma 46 of the Book of Mormon includes an interesting example of just such an oath. This paper will examine that oath, drawing upon parallels from the ancient Near East for comparison.
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| − | {{MaxwellInstituteBar
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| − | |link=http://publications.maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/fullscreen/?pub=1382&index=9
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| − | |title=Simile Curses in the Ancient Near East, Old Testament, and Book of Mormon
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| − | |author=Mark J. Morrise
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| − | |publication=Journal of Book of Mormon Studies
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| − | |vol=2
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| − | |num=1
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| − | |date=1993
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| − | |summary=The simile curse is a type of curse that appears in ancient Near Eastern, Old Testament, and Book of Mormon texts. It consists of two parts: (1) an event (e.g., "Just as this wax is burned by fire") and (2) an application of that event to the subject of the curse (e.g., "so shall Arpad be burned"). In ancient Near Eastern texts, simile curses appear in written treaties and were often part of a ritual acted out during a treaty ceremony. In the Old Testament, simile curses appear primarily in prophetic writings as literary devices. In the Book of Mormon, simile curses appear in the context of treaties, religious covenants, and prophecies, and in several instances were acted out. These curses were probably part of the oral tradition of ancient Near Eastern, Old Testament, and Book of Mormon peoples.
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| − | }}
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| − | {{MaxwellInstituteBar
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| − | |link=http://publications.maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/fullscreen/?pub=1110&index=54
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| − | |title=Exemption from Military Duty
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| − | |author=John W. Welch
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| − | |publication=Reexploring the Book of Mormon
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| − | |date=1992
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| − | |summary=The only Book of Mormon group given an exemption from military service was the famous people of Ammon. In repenting of their previous shedding of blood, they had sworn an oath that they would never again take up arms (see Alma 24:11-13). After they arrived in Zarahemla, they were granted an extraordinary exemption from active military duty if they would help to sustain the Nephite armies with provisions (see Alma 27:23-24). Surprisingly, the grant of this exceptional privilege was consistent with ancient Israelite law.
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| − | }}
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| − | {{MaxwellInstituteBar
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| − | |link=http://publications.maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/fullscreen/?pub=1110&index=58
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| − | |title='Holy War' in the Book of Mormon and the Ancient Near East
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| − | |author=Stephen D. Ricks
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| − | |publication=Reexploring the Book of Mormon
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| − | |date=1992
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| − | |summary=In a sense, every conflict in the ancient Near East—as reflected in Egyptian, Babylonian, Assyrian, Hittite, Persian, and Syro-Palestinian texts—was considered to be prosecuted under the divine direction of the gods or of God. War was begun at the command of, or with the approval and aid of, the gods or God. It was generally accompanied by sacrifices, fought by men who were in a state of ritual readiness for conflict, and ended by the victors with thanksgiving and offerings to deity.
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| − | {{MaxwellInstituteBar
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| − | |link=http://publications.maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/fullscreen/?pub=1108&index=6
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| − | |title='Holy War': The Sacral Ideology of War in the Book of Mormon and in the Ancient Near East
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| − | |author=Stephen D. Ricks
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| − | |publication=Warfare in the Book of Mormon
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| − | |date=1990
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| − | |summary=In a sense, every conflict in the ancient Near East was prosecuted under the direction of the gods or of God. Men began war at the command of, or with the approval and aid of, the gods or of God; sacrifices generally accompanied it, men fought who were in a state of ritual readiness for combat, and the victors ended the conflict with thanksgiving and offerings to deity.
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| − | }}
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| − | {{MaxwellInstituteBar
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| − | |link=http://publications.maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/fullscreen/?pub=1110&index=59
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| − | |title=Symbolic Action as Prophetic Curse
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| − | |author=Donald W. Parry
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| − | |publication=Reexploring the Book of Mormon
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| − | |date=1992
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| − | |summary=At one point in his ministry, Isaiah was instructed by the Lord to remove his garment and shoes and walk "naked [like a slave, without an upper garment] and barefoot" among the people. Isaiah's action was to be a sign, for as Isaiah walked like a slave, even so would the Egyptians become slaves to the Assyrians (Isaiah 20:2-4). This prophetic symbolic action by Isaiah represented a prophetic curse that destruction and ruin would come upon the Egyptians.
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| − | }}
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| − | ==Seasonality of Warfare==
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| − | {{MaxwellInstituteBar
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| − | |link=http://publications.maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/fullscreen/?pub=1108&index=21
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| − | |title=Seasonality of Warfare in the Book of Mormon and in Mesoamerica
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| − | |author=John L. Sorenson
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| − | |publication=Warfare in the Book of Mormon
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| − | |date=1990
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| − | |summary=When we carefully examine the accounts of wars in the middle portion of the Nephite record, we find that military action did not take place at random throughout the calendar year but at particular times. Whatever realistic scene we assume for the Nephite lands, we would expect to find a similar seasonal pattern in that area's secular historical sources. I consider Mesoamerica (central and southern Mexico and northern Central America) to have been the scene of the Nephite conflicts, but whatever plausible location one chooses will lie in the tropics because, among other reasons, only in those areas are there feasible isthmuses located that could correspond to the "narrow neck of land" of the Nephites. Everywhere in those latitudes, war was normally carried on by the pre-Columbian inhabitants during a short annual period. This paper investigates the evidence for seasonality of warfare in the Book of Mormon account and compares it with what is currently known about the timing of warfare in Mesoamerica.
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| − | }}
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| − | A fascinating issue on climate is the seasons of war described in the Book of Mormon, mostly between [http://scriptures.lds.org/en/alma/9 Alma 9] and [http://scriptures.lds.org/en/alma/47 Alma 47]. Several examples provide specific months and days of the battle (e.g., [http://scriptures.lds.org/en/alma/16/1#1 Alma 16:1]). Many others indicate the general time of year (e.g., [http://scriptures.lds.org/en/alma/44/22-24#22 Alma 44:22–24]). In over 30 places, war action is described as taking place near the end or beginning of the year. Sorenson has compiled information from the text about the month of the year various military skirmishes are mentioned. Almost all occur between the 11th and 3rd months, with a small number reported in the 4th, 5th, and 10th months, and none mentioned in the 6th through 9th months.<ref name="sorenson">{{Rediscovering|author=John Sorenson|article=Seasons of War, Seasons of Peace in the Book of Mormon|start=249 | end=256}}</ref> Why this pattern?
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| − | Interestingly, the text also makes reference to cultivation of food a number of times in the 4th through 9th months. The problem of getting food to the troops is mentioned as a concern mainly in the twelfth through second months. Thus it seems that the harvest may have been in months 10 through 12. The Nephite "agricultural year" seems, then, to proceed like this:
| + | {{:Book of Mormon/Warfare/Defense}} |
| | + | {{:Book of Mormon/Warfare/Oaths taken by warriors}} |
| | + | {{:Book of Mormon/Warfare/Seasonality}} |
| | + | {{:Book of Mormon/Warfare/Tactics}} |
| | + | {{:Book of Mormon/Warfare/Secret combinations}} |
| | + | {{:Book of Mormon/Warfare/Weapons}} |
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| − | * Cultivation of fields: months 4-9
| + | {{Critical sources box:Book of Mormon/Warfare/CriticalSources}} |
| − | * Main harvest: months 10-12
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| − | * Time of warfare: mainly months 11-3).
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| − | | |
| − | ===Warfare Insights from the Text===
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| − | This leads to several insights:
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| − | * since the armies were largely made of ordinary citizens (like reservists) who were largely farmers, they were not available for warfare except after the harvest (see [http://scriptures.lds.org/en/alma/53/7#7 Alma 53:7]);
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| − | * since an army moves on its stomach, fighting is most easily carried out when food supplies are most available, which would be after the harvest;
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| − | * the Book of Mormon shows remarkable accuracy (and internal consistency) in dealing with the ancient relationship between agriculture and warfare.
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| − | But how do Nephite months correspond to ours? In Mesoamerica, May though September is the best time for growing crops (heat and moisture are most available). October through April is fairly dry. We also know that before Columbus, military campaigns in Central America occurred mainly between late October and February (again, farmers were then free of agricultural duties and food could be gathered—or seized as plunder). Likewise, soggy land from heavy rains would be drier and more passable (and made living in tents easier). These considerations lead Sorenson and others to conclude that the Nephite year may have begun in late December, perhaps with the winter solstice (Dec. 21/22), as did many other ancient peoples.<ref name="sorenson"></ref>
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| − | ===Different from Joseph Smith's World===
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| − | The Book of Mormon's consistent representation of the seasonality of Mesoamerican warfare bodes poorly for the theory that Joseph Smith wrote the Book of Mormon. A significant battle scene (one in which the long-term survival of the Nephite nation might have been at stake) is described in {{s||Alma|51||}} at the end of the year—around December. After heavy fighting and major marches, both sides were very tired because of their "labors and heat of the day." This takes place on the east coast, "in the borders on the beach by the seashore" ({{s||Alma|51|32}}).
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| − | In Mesoamerica, at this season, the rain-swollen rivers have subsided, but the east region (which would correspond to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec area under the [[Book_of_Mormon_geography:New_World#Limited_geography_theory|limited geography model]]) is still rather wet, low, and hot. The hottest weather was still months away, but down on the coast it was hot and muggy enough to contribute to the fatigue of the rapidly traveling troops.
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| − | {{s||Alma|51||}} shows that the land of the Book of Mormon peoples was not a cold, snow-covered place in winter, as upstate New York was for young Joseph Smith. If Joseph created the book based on what he knew, he would have had fighting occur in the summer, not during winter. The internal consistency of many passages dealing with war during the proper season of war for Mesoamerica is also remarkable—and has not been noted or recognized until the late twentieth century. Though it is a minor point in the text, the geographical and climatic information provided fits and makes sense. It must be considered as one of the many "mundane" but powerful evidences for authenticity.
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| − | ==Secret Combinations==
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| − | {{MaxwellInstituteBar
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| − | |link=http://publications.maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/fullscreen/?pub=1108&index=15
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| − | |title=Secret Combinations, Warfare, and Captive Sacrifice in Mesoamerica and the Book of Mormon
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| − | |author=Bruce W. Warren
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| − | |publication=Warfare in the Book of Mormon
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| − | |date=1990
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| − | |summary=The source of secret combinations in the Book of Mormon is given in the following passage: Satan "did plot with Cain, that if he would murder his brother Abel it should not be known unto the world. And he did plot with Cain and his followers from that time forth. And also it is that same being who put it into the hearts of the people to build a tower sufficiently high that they might get to heaven. And it was that same being who led on the people who came from that tower into this land; who spread the works of darkness and abominations over all the face of the land, until he dragged the people down to an entire destruction, and to an everlasting hell" (Helaman 6:27-28).
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| − | }}
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| − | ==Tactics==
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| − | {{Main|/Tactics|l1=Tactics in Book of Mormon warfare}}
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| − | ==Strategy==
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| − | {{Main|/Strategy|l1=Strategy in Book of Mormon warfare}}
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| − | ==Weapons==
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| − | ===Swords===
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| − | {{Main|Book of Mormon and warfare/Swords}}
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| − | {{MaxwellInstituteBar
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| − | |link=http://publications.maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/fullscreen/?pub=1108&index=15
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| − | |title=Swords in the Book of Mormon
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| − | |author=William J. Hamblin, A. Brent Merrill
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| − | |publication=Warfare in the Book of Mormon
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| − | |date=1990
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| − | |summary=The Book of Mormon mentions the sword 156 times, more than any other weapon. For the sake of discussion, we have divided its usage into two categories: literary or metaphorical and military-technical. We have classified seventy-eight instances as metaphorical and seventy-eight as technical (though many occurrences are ambiguous and could fall in either category). There are four major types of sword metaphors used in the Book of Mormon: fighting or warfare in general, violent death, military vigilance, and divine power. The book metaphorically describes fighting in battle with eighteen different sword phrases, violent death with seven major metaphors, military preparedness with two phrases, and divine power with five metaphors.
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| − | }}
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| − | ===Cimeters/Scimiters===
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| − | {{:Source:Hoskisson:Scimitars, Cimeters:Warfare in the Book of Mormon:the mistaken assumption that scimitars did not exist in the pre-Islamic Old World}}
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| − | {{:Source: Egyptian Scimiter from Tell El-Dab'a in the Eastern Nile Delta}}
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| − | {{:Source:Roper:Swords and "Cimeters" in the Book of Mormon:JBMS 8:1:a strange double-curved weapon held in the left hand of the warrior figure on the Loltún cave relief}} | |
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| − | ===Bows and Arrows===
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| − | {{MaxwellInstituteBar
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| − | |link=http://publications.maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/fullscreen/?pub=1108&index=18
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| − | |title=The Bow and Arrow in the Book of Mormon
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| − | |author=William J. Hamblin
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| − | |publication=Warfare in the Book of Mormon
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| − | |date=1990
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| − | |summary=After the sword, the bow is the second most frequently mentioned weapon in the Book of Mormon. Bows are mentioned twenty-two times, arrows twenty-six. In fourteen cases the bow and arrow are mentioned together; in eight cases, the bow is mentioned alone; in twelve, the arrow alone. In most cases, the bow is simply mentioned as a weapon with no additional details. However, several significant incidents give some indication of the nature and use of the Book of Mormon bow.
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| − | }}
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| − | </onlyinclude>
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| − | {{CriticalSources}}
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| | {{endnotes sources}} | | {{endnotes sources}} |
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| − | {{FurtherReading}}
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| − | {{Articles Footer 1}} {{Articles Footer 2}} {{Articles Footer 3}} {{Articles Footer 4}} {{Articles Footer 5}} {{Articles Footer 6}} {{Articles Footer 7}} {{Articles Footer 8}} {{Articles Footer 9}} {{Articles Footer 10}}
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| | <!-- PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE ANYTHING BELOW THIS LINE --> | | <!-- PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE ANYTHING BELOW THIS LINE --> |
| − | [[en:Book of Mormon/Warfare]] | + | [[de:Das Buch Mormon/Krieg]] |
| | [[es:El Libro de Mormón/Arte de guerra]] | | [[es:El Libro de Mormón/Arte de guerra]] |
| − | [[pt:Creating O Livro de Mórmon/Guerra]] | + | [[pt:O Livro de Mórmon/Guerra]] |
